(1) European Governments were driven by the spirit of conservatism after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815.
(2) Conservatives believed that established traditional institutions of state and society-like the monarchy, the church, social hierarchies, property and the family should be preserved.
(3) Most conservatives however did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days. They realised from the changes initiated by Napoleon that modernisation could, in fact, strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy.
(4) That would make state powers more effective and strong.
(5) Because a modem and efficient bureucracy, a dynamic economy the abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.

In the nineteenth century, colonial India had become an exporter of agricultural goods and importer of manufactures. The impact of the Great Depression in India was felt especially in the agricultural sector. It was evident that Indian economy was closely becoming integrated to global economy. India was a British colony and exported agricultural goods and imported manufactured goods. The fall in agricultural price led to reduction of farmers’ income and agricultural export. It led to a great rural unrest in India. The great depressions immediately affected Indian trade in such as:

● India’s exports and imports nearly halved between 1928 and 1934.

● As international prices crashed, prices in India also plunged. Between 1928 and 1934, wheat prices in India fell by 50 per cent.

● Peasants and farmers suffered more than urban dwellers. Though agricultural prices fell sharply, the colonial government refused to reduce revenue demands.

● Peasants producing for the world market were the worst hit. Across India, peasants indebtedness increased. However the depression proved less grim for urban India.

Colonisation refers to the subjugation of one country by the other militarily advanced and a powerful nation. Colonisation results in political, economic, cultural and social changes in the subjugated country. Colonialism was a prominent phenomena beginning from the 17 till the 20th centuries. Mostly Asia and Africa was colonised by the European and Western nations.

Democracies are unable to reduce economic inequalities because democracies are based on political equalities like universal adult franchise etc. Further, economic development of a country depends upon various factors like size of population, availibility of resources, cooperation from other countries etc. Besides, the political parties which are voted by the poor people, themselves do very little to implement policies to eradicate poverty and economic inequalities. Sometimes, even one sided development policies also results in greater economic inequalities.

Unification of Germany:

• The  newly  emerged  middle  class  in  Germany  in  1848  tried  to  unite  several German  kingdoms which  were  suppressed  by  monarchies  and  large  landowners into one nation state governed by an elected body.
• Prussia, a German kingdom, took the leadership in uniting various German states. Otto  von  Bismarck,  the  Chief  Minister  of  Prussia, aimed  to  achieve  the  goal  of unification with the help of the Prussian army and the bureaucracy.
• Spread over seven years, the Prussian army with the help of the Austrian, French and Danish armies fought three wars and successfully incorporated all the small German kingdoms. This marked the process of completion of German unification.
• The  German  unification  was  completed  in  1871  and  in  the  same  year William I was  declared  as  the emperor of Germany at the Palace of Versailles.
• The process of the unification of Germany exhibited the power of the Prussian state. Many new reforms were initiated in banking, currency, administration and judiciary in Germany.

Globalisation is the interconnection between counties through the expansion of foreign trade and foreign investment. It is the process of integrating the home country with foreign countries through the movement of goods, services, investment, technology and people.

Globalisation act as means of social change in society. New ideas, technologies, attitudes and planning spread from different countries because of this. It results in the mingling of people from varied cultures and beliefs. It results in the development of combined culture. It enables the people to break their constricted stereotypes and attitudes and widen their mental, emotional and psychological attitudes.

Globalisation also results in the inflow of additional investment to the home country. Huge firms with many resources may bring in their additional share of investment. This is particularly beneficial to the developing countries that have scarcity in resources.

New and advanced technology is also an advantage of globalisation. MNCs, bring in with them the latest technology as an investment to the home country. MNCs always have new and advanced technology for operations which can be used by the home countries to increase their production.

Globalisation will result in increased employment opportunities. MNCs always bring in with them the bulk of employment opportunities. They will require qualified and professional employees for the management of their regional offices in the home country. It will also increase employment in allied sectors like transportation, IT and other industries. They will also generate a lot of other jobs in sectors like footwear and garments when they place orders for the products with the local industries. This increases employment opportunities in the home country.

Thus globalisation is fun if its positive aspects are considered. But it has also widened the gap in income distribution, jobless growth, insecure jobs and the shutting down of many domestic industries. In short, globalisation has resulted in the domination of the large MNCs in the world economy.

The exchange of food crops and habits between different regions and its adoption by different societies was a good indicator of globalisation. For example, the Europeans benefitted from the introduction of potatoes with good nutrients and health. Thousands perished in 1840s during the Irish Potato Famine.

The Romans learned about the silk route from the Parthians around 53 B.C.E. They used the word “Seres”or the silk people to refer to the Chinese. Though there was no direct evidence of any Roman merchants or Chinese in both the civilisations, silk was most coveted in Rome.Roman items were popular in China too.

1. Alluvial soil is considered the most fertile soil. The entire northern plains of India are made of alluvial soil.

1. Alluvial soil contains sand, silt and clay.

1. According to age, the alluvial soil is classified as Bangar (old alluvial) and Khadar (new alluvial).

1. Alluvial soil contains an ample amount of potash, phosphoric acid and lime. The soil is thus suitable for the growth of sugarcane.

In India, alluvial soil is deposited by Rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra. Alluvial soil is found in the northern Indian plains extending to some parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat. It is also found in the eastern coastal plains, especially in the delta of Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari and Kaveri.

The pro-active approach adopted by the National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) for preserving the natural environment:
(a) Optimum utilization of equipment adopting latest techniques and upgrading existing equipment.
(b) Minimizing waste generation by maximizing ash utilization
(c) Providing green belts for nurturing ecological balance and addressing the question of special purpose vehicles for afforestation.
(d) Reducing environmental pollution through ash pond management, ash water recycling system and liquid waste management.
(e) Ecological monitoring, reviews and online database management for all its power stations.

Big European nations met in Berlin to hold a conference regarding the split up of the federated states of Africa. They wanted to split Africa into separate states in order to gain control over the continent’s abundant natural resources for the development of their industrial sector. The conference lasted for three months and resulted in the split up of Africa into fifty states.

Some steps taken by the government towards empowerment and gender equality are:
1.Establishment of separate ministry for women and child development which is meant to improve their conditions.

2.Reservation is Panchayats and many other government sectors.

3.Establishment of National women constitution for women justice and launching of various welfare programmes for improving the women status.

4. Increasing security for women.

Major forms of power sharing in modern democracy are:

• Power sharing among different Organs of the Government: In democracy, power is shared among Legislature, Executive and Juduciary.This is known as distribution of power. No organ of the governemnt can e P xcercise unlimited power as each ower sharing among different Organs of the Government organ checks the others.
• Governments at different levels: In federal form of government, power is shared between the central and state governments. In India there is another lower level of government -local self government.This is called vertical division of government.
• Social Groups: Power may also be shared among different social groups such as religious and linguistic groups. In India, there are constitutional and legal arrangements whereby socially weaker sections and women are represented in the legislatures and administration.
• Division of power between political parties, pressure groups and movements: Political parties are the organisations which aim to control power by contesting elections. In a democracy, citizens have the freedom to choose among the various contenders for power. When no party gets a majority, two or more parties come together to form a governemnt. In a democracy, pressure and interest groups also have an indirect share in the governemnt's power.

Unification of Italy

• Italy was politically fragmented into various small states which were ruled by monarchies.
• During the mid-nineteenth century, only the state of Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by the Italian monarchy. The northern states were under the Austrian monarchy, Central Italy was under the control of the Pope and the states in the south were under the control of the Bourbon kings of Spain.
• Giuseppe Mazzini was a revolutionary who actively supported the unification of the Italian states. For achieving this aim, he formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’.
• The state of Sardinia-Piedmont took the responsibility of fulfilling this task after the failed uprisings in 1831 and 1848. The king of Sardinia-Piedmont, Victor Emmanuel II, was actively helped by his Chief Minister Cavour. Cavour led the process of the unification of Italy.

• In 1859, the state of Sardinia-Piedmont defeated the Austrians. In 1860, the Italian forces helped by Giuseppe Garibaldi and his volunteers marched into southern Italy and unified it with Italy.
• King Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as the king of united Italy. The complete unification of Italy was achieved in 1871.