India has three cropping seasons — rabi, kharif and zaid.

• Rabi: Rabi crops are also known as winter crops. They are sown from October to December and harvested from April to June. Wheat, barley, pea, gram and mustard are the important rabi crops. Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhan and Uttar Pradesh are the important producers of rabi crops.
• Kharif: Kharif crops are also known as summer crops. They are sown at the beginning of monosoon and harvested in September-October. Paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur, moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean are important kharif crops. Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar are important rice growing states. In Assam, West Bengal and Orissa; three crops of paddy are grown in a year. These are called Aus, Aman and Boro.
• Zaid: The zaid season falls in between the rabi and kharif seasons. Watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and fodder crops are some of the crops grown in this season. Sugarcane is planted in this season but takes almost a year to grow.

• The Bourbon dynasty which had been deposed during the French Revolution was restored to power.
• A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in the future.
• Kingdom of Netherlands was set up in the north and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south.
• Prussia was given new territories to its west and Austria was given control of northern Italy.
• Russia was given part of Poland, while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.
• Their main aim was to restore monarchies and create a new conservative order in Europe.
• France lost the territories it had annexed under Napolean.

In Intensive Subsistence Farming type of farming, crops produced by the farmers are mainly consumed by their families. Surplus production is sold in the near by local markets. It is labour intensive farming. In this kind of farming, more than one crop is cultivated in the agricultural field.
In Commercial Farming type of farming, crops are grown for commercial purposes, i.e. for selling in the local and international markets. Crops mainly grown are: tea, coffee, jute etc. Farming is mechanised and is prevalent in areas where farms are large and market economy is well developed. Generally one crop is cultivated.
So, Commercial  agriculture is better than intensive subsistence agriculture.

The cotton mill was created by Richard Arkwright
The first cotton mill in Bombay came up in 1854 and it went into production two years later. By 1862 four mills were in operation. Jute mills also came up in Bengal around the same time. The Elgin Mill was started in Kanpur in the 1860s. In Ahmadabad, the first cotton mill was set up in the same period. By 1874, the first cotton mill of Madras began production.
 

The two main social groups in Sri Lanka are:
• Sinhala-speakers - 74%
• Tamil-speakers - 18 %. Among Tamils there are two subgroups;
• Tamil natives or the ‘Sri Lankan Tamils’ - 13 %.
• ‘Indian Tamils’- 87 % of the Tamil-speakers. Their forefathers came from India as plantation workers during colonial period.

Land degradation: When land becomes barren, infertile for cultivation, it is called land degradation.
Causes:

• Overgrazing by animals
• Deforestation
• Over mining and quarrying
• Over irrigation resulting in water logging leading to salinity and alkalinity.
• Mineral processing, like grinding of limestone for cement industry and calcite and soapstone for ceramic industries, generates heavy amount of dust and pollutes atmosphere. It later settles down on land and reduces infiltration of water into the soil besides degrading land and surface water.
• Discharge of industrial effluents into water bodies and on land.

Prevents:

• Terrace farming
• Construction of dams
• Afforestation
• Preparation of shelter belts
• Control on overgrazing by animals
• Stabilization of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes.

Even before factories began to appear on the landscape of England and Europe, there was a large scale industrial production for an international market. This was not based on factories. Many historians now refer to this phase of industrialization as proto-industrialization, or the precursor to industrialization.
During this period most of the goods were hand manufactured by trained crafts-persons for the international market.

Tamil Eelam is the name given by Tamils in Sri Lanka and the Sri Lankan  Tamil diaspora to the independent state which they aspire to create in  the north and east of Sri Lanka.

 In 1848, the middle class Germans tried to unite the different regions of German confederation into a nation state under an elected parliament. but this liberal initiative of nation building was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and big landlords of Prussia. Otto Van Bismarck, the chief minister of Prussia carried out the process of unification with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Bismarck was convinced that the unification of Germany could only be achieved by the princes, and not by the people. He wanted to achieve his aim by merging Prussia into Germany. In 1867, Bismarck became the chancellor of the North confederation.
Bismarck's main aim was to unify Germany and was accomplished by three wars which were fought in a brief period of seven years. These wars were ended with the victory of Prussia which helped in completing the process of German unification on 18th January 1871. The German unification established the Prussian dominance in Europe.

Nationalism: It is a belief system which  instills a sense of common identity among  the members of a nation. National flag, national  symbol, national anthem, etc. play an important role in developing and strengthening the idea of nationalism.

The Greek war of independence mobilized the nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe. The struggle for independence among the Greeks began in 1821. The nationalists in Greece got support from many Greeks who were living in exile. Moreover, they also got support from many West Europeans who sympathized with the ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists mobilized public opinion to support this struggle against the Muslim empire. It is important to note that Greece had been a part of the Ottoman Empire. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.

Power sharing is true spirit of democracy because
(i) It helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups.
(ii) It is a good way to ensure the stability of the political order.
(iii) Here, people have a right to be consulted on how they are to be governed. Thus, a legitimate government, is one where citizens, through participation, acquire a stake in the system.

The First World War deeply affected India though it was under the British rule at that time. The Following points state its impact
(i) The British Government raised taxes, custom duties and income taxes in India to finance the war expenditures.
(ii) Villagers were called upon to supply soldiers and the forced recruitment in rural area caused widespread anger.
(iii) There was a rise the prices of food and other essential things.