Robespierre introduced several reforms. These included-
1. max. ceiling on wages and prices
2. meat and bread were rationed
3. peasents were forced to sell their produce in cities at prices fixed by gov.
4. Instead of sir and madam everyone was henceforth vitizens.
5. churches were shut down and converted to barracks or offices.
6. bread made only of wholewheat was to be eaten.

Factors Affecting India’s Climate

Latitude: The Indian landmass is equally divided by The Tropic of Cancer. Hence, half of India has tropical climate and another half has subtropical climate.

Altitude: While the average elevation in the coastal areas is about 30 metre, the average elevation in the north is about 6,000 metre. The Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the Indian subcontinent. Due to this, the subcontinent gets comparatively milder winters as compared to Central Asia.

Pressure and Winds: The Indian subcontinent lies in the region of north-easterly winds. These winds originate from the subtropical high-pressure belt of the northern hemisphere. After that, these winds blow towards south. They get deflected to the right due to the Coriolis force and then move towards the low pressure area near the equator.

Any elevated area such as a mountain or a plateau that separates two drainage basins is known as a 'water divide'.
For example, Ambala is located at the water divide between the Indus and Ganga rivers. It does not receive water from either of the two rivers.

Meaning of integration of cults:
(i) From tenth to seventeenth century the most striking religious features is the increasing visibility of a wide range of god and goddess in sculpture as well as in religious books (texts) at one level, this indicates the continued and extended worship of major deities-Vishnu, Shiva and goddesses like Durga, Laxmi or Parvati-each of whom was visualised in a variety of forms.
(ii) Historians who have tried to understand these developments suggest that there were at least two processes at work. One was a process of disseminating Brahmanical ideas. This is exemplified by the composition, compilation and preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verse, explicitly meant to be accessible to women and Shudras, who were generally excluded from Vedic learning. At the same time, there was a second process at work - that of the Brahmanas accepting and reworking the beliefs and practices of these and other social categories. In fact, many beliefs and practices were shaped through a continuous dialogue between what sociologists have described as “great” Sanskritic Puranic traditions and “little” traditions throughout the land.
Example 1 : One of the most striking examples of this process is evident at Puri, Orissa, where the principal deity was identified, by the twelfth century, as Jagannatha (literally, the lord of the world), a form of Vishnu.
Example 2 : Through an instance we can say that a local deity whose image was continues to be made of wood by local tribal specialists, was recognised as a form of Vishnu. At the same time, Vishnu was visualised in a way that was very different from that in other parts of the country.
Such instances of integration are evident amongst goddess cults as well. Worship of the goddess, often simply in the form of a stone smeared with ochre, was evidently widespread.

The war that started on 1st September 1939 A.D. and spread worldwide and lasted till 1945 A.D. causing huge destruction of lives and properties is known as Second World War. The following are the major causes of the war:

1. Treaty of Versailles: At the end of the first world war, a treaty was signed between the Allies group and Germany where Germany was badly humiliated. Germany had to accept the treaty with a knife in the throat. There was huge restriction in terms of military, weapons manufacturing and also had to pay 660 million pounds to Allies as war compensation. Such humiliation was not tolerable by the German people. This feeling of revenge led to the support of Adolf Hitler, who threatened world peace by violating the treaty that opened the door for second world war.
2. Rise of Hitler and Militarism: After World War I, German people suffered from several problems like unemployment. But Hitler established an arm industry which became source of employment for many German people. Then, he violated the treaty by not paying war compensation. The hardship caused due to World War I was not tolerable by German people and it led to increase in support to Hitler and his National Socialist Party (Nazi). When he got majority in German parliament and formed the government, he suspended the constitution and started to rule as a dictator. He captured Rhineland, increased his army and started to annex the German territories lost by Germany during first world war. Further, Hitler annexed Czechoslovakia and attacked Austria. Such aggressive activities became the cause of Second World War.

3. Rise of Communism: After the October Revolution of Russia in 1917 AD, the influence of communism spread widely around the world. To stop the influence in Europe, Japan and Germany had signed a treaty in 1936 AD called Anti Comintern Pact. In 1937 AD, Italy joined the treaty and was called Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis. After its formation, the countries started colonialism. America, France and Britain did not pay attention thinking that it would stop the spread of communism. But the Axis started to fulfill their personal interest which caused disturbance in world peace.

4. Economic Crisis and Rise of Dictators: During first world war, a large number of youths were killed. The scarcity of manpower was caused. Lack of production in factories caused hunger and starvation led to economic crisis worldwide. In such transitional period, the dictators won the heart of people by their attractive slogans. So, Hitler came in to the power in Germany, General Franco in Spain and Mussolini in Italy. Then the treaty was violated by all and no one could stop or check them.

5. Failure of League of Nations: League of Nations was established to prevent the world from wars and maintain world peace. But Woodrow Wilson, who was the idea maker, his country USA never got the membership of the organization which weakened the organization and became the cause of the second world war.

Condition of France before the French Revolution

(i) The French king Louis XIV drove France into useless wars bringing the country to the verge of bankruptcy.

(ii) Fiancé was a centralised monarchy. People had no share in decision making.

(iii) Administration was disorganised, corrupt and inefficient. The defective system of tax collection, whereby the burden was borne by the Third Estate was oppressive and created discontent.

(iv) The French society was divided into Estates, with 1st two Estates-clergy and nobility were the privileged ones. The large majority of the population constituted the Third Estate-formed the unprivileged class and shouldered the burden of taxation.

(v) Women formed the part of the class of unprivileged. They had no access to education, were deprived of job training, were engaged in low jobs and their wages were less than men. They did not enjoy political rights as men.

Main changes brought about by the Bolsheviks immediately after the October Revolution
In November 1917, industry and banks were nationalised; land was declared social property, thereby allowing peasants to seize it from the nobility. In urban areas, houses were partitioned according to family requirements; old aristocratic titles were banned, and new uniforms were designed for the army and the officials. In November, the Bolsheviks lost in the elections to the Constituent Assembly, and when in January 1918, the Assembly rejected their measures, Lenin dismissed the Assembly. In March 1918, despite political opposition, Russia signed a peace treaty with Germany at Brest Litovsk. Gradually, Russia became a one-party state where trade-unions were controlled, Bolsheviks’ critics were punished by the secret police, and any form of opposition to the Bolshevik Party was censored.

EPIC refers to Election Photo Identity Card system which has been introduced by Election Commission in the recent years. This Card is given to every person on the voters’ list and the voters are required to carry the same during the time of elections. In this way, no one can vote for someone else.

The conditions of Russia before 1905:
(i)Social Condition: At the beginning of the twentieth century, the vast majority of Russia’s people were agriculturists. About 85% of Russia's population was agriculturist. Industry was existent, but rarely in which most of was privately owned. Workers were divided on the basis of their occupation. They mainly migrated to cities for employment in factories. The peasant community was deeply religious, but did not care much about the nobility. They believed that land must be divided amongst themselves.
(ii)Economic Condition:  There was no middle class in Russia and as such industrialization in Russia began very late and it developed at a fairly fast rate. The foreign capitalists invested large sums in different industries to amass huge profits. The foreign investors were more interested in early profits than in improving the conditions of the workers. Prices of essential good rises while real wages decreased by 20% leading to the famous St.Petersburg strike. This strike started a series of events that are together known as the 1905 Revolution.
Even the Russian Capitalists exploited the workers and paid them low wage to compete with foreign investors. The workers had no political rights. The conditions of the workers in Russia were very miserable. They were forced to lead a wretched life. That is why the workers were influenced by the ideas of socialism.
(iii)Political Conditions: In 1904, there was a war between Russia and Japan. The huge Russian giant suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of a tiny country like Japan. A revolution broke out in Russia in 1905. It was sparked off by an incident on January 9, 1905. The soviet workers took active part in this revolution. Some sections of army and navy also joined the revolution.
In October 1905, the Czar announced his manifesto and granted the freedom of speech, press and association. He further conferred the law making power on an elected body called ‘Duma’ but he soon relapsed his despotic rule.
Political parties were illegal before 1914. The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898 by socialists who respected Marx’s ideas. In 1903, this party was divided into two groups - Mensheviks and Bolsheviks. The Bolsheviks, who were in majority, were led by Lenin who is regarded as the greatest thinker on socialism after Marx.

The South African Constitution inspires democrats all over the world. South Africa was a country which was looked down upon by many during the Apartheid regime.Today the determination of the people of South Africa to work together, without bearing any grudge against the white regime looked upon with great respect. South Africa has made its constitution just like an ideal constitution for every country to follow. The South African Constitution sees people of all skin colour as equal. Men and women are treated equally in this country. Blacks, whites and coloured people, men and women, live as free citizens, in total harmony in South Africa. This just because of its constitution. 

To understand the mechanism of the monsoons, the following facts are important.
The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates low pressure on the landmass of India while the seas around experience comparatively high pressure.
The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer, over the Ganga plain (this is the equatorial trough normally positioned about 5°N of the equator – also known as the monsoon trough during the monsoon season).
The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at 20°S over the Indian Ocean. The intensity and position of this high-pressure area affects the Indian Monsoon.
The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong vertical air currents and the formation of high pressure over the plateau at about 9 km above sea level.
The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during summer.

The treaty of Versailles which saw the end of World War I heaped humiliation on Germany which had to concede its colonies, territories and resources to the Allies. Germany was also demilitarized and also had to pay £ 6 billion as war indemnity. Many Germans held the newly established Weimer Republic responsible for this humiliating peace treaty and defeat in the first world war. The supporters of the Weimer Republic were mockingly called ‘November Criminals’ by the nationalist groups.  Germany saw a period of economic bankruptcy post World War I. There was widespread unemployment, poverty and political turmoil.  Adolf Hitler, having participated in World War I as a messenger and seen glory through bravery medals was left disillusioned after the treaty of Versailles.  He joined the nationalist German Workers Party in 1919. He rose within the Party and eventually headed it. He renamed the party as Nationalist Socialist German Worker’s Party which later came to be known as the Nazi party.

France in the 18^{<font size="2">th</font>} century had many revolutionary thinkers. Among them were Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu and Diderot. Their revolutionary ideas encouraged people to fight for their rights. They exposed the inefficiency of the monarch and his government and aroused the people to challenge authority.