(i)Social Condition: At the beginning of the twentieth century, the vast majority of Russia’s people were agriculturists. About 85% of Russia's population was agriculturist. Industry was existent, but rarely in which most of was privately owned. Workers were divided on the basis of their occupation. They mainly migrated to cities for employment in factories. The peasant community was deeply religious, but did not care much about the nobility. They believed that land must be divided amongst themselves.
(ii)Economic Condition:  There was no middle class in Russia and as such industrialization in Russia began very late and it developed at a fairly fast rate. The foreign capitalists invested large sums in different industries to amass huge profits. The foreign investors were more interested in early profits than in improving the conditions of the workers.
(iii)Political Conditions: Political parties were illegal before 1914. The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898 by socialists who respected Marx’s ideas. In 1903, this party was divided into two groups - Mensheviks and Bolsheviks. The Bolsheviks, who were in majority, were led by Lenin who is regarded as the greatest thinker on socialism after Marx.

 Freedom of religion is a principle that supports the freedom  of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance; the concept is generally recognized also to include the freedom to change religion or not to follow any religion.

Swidden agriculture or shifting cultivation is a traditional agricultural practice where cultivators used to cut certain parts of the forest in rotation. Than they burn the trees and sow seeds in ashes after the monsoon rains.
It is practised in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America. It has many local names like ladding in South-East Asia, Milpa in Central America, Chitemene or tavy in Africa, Chena in Sri Lanka. In India dhya, penda, bewar, nevad, jhum, podu, khandad and kumri are some of the local terms for swidden agriculture.

Institutions are usually defined as certain enduring and accepted forms of procedure governing the relations between individuals and groups.
Every organisation depends upon certain recongnised and established set of rules, traditions and usages.
These usages and rules are the institutions.
They are the forms of procedures which are accepted and recognised by society and govern the relations between individuals and groups.
People form an association to satisfy their needs.
But these needs are also satisfied through institutions.
So every association has its own institutions. Without these, no association can regulate the members.
For example, family in association has its own institutions like marriage, the system of property and inheritance. A state as an association has its own institutions like government, legislative procedure, constitutions etc.

The climate of India is strongly influenced by the monsoon winds. It refers to a season in which the wind system reverses completely. The monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between 20° N and 20° S.
Various atmospheric conditions influence the monsoon winds.

• The first condition is the differential heating and cooling of land and water. This creates low pressure on the landmass, while high pressure is created over the seas around during day time, but is reversed during the night time.
• The second condition is the shift in the position of Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). In summer, the equatorial trough normally positioned about 5°N of the equator moves over the Ganga plain creating a monsoon trough during the monsoon season.
• The third condition is the presence of the high-pressure area that develops east of Madagascar. It is approximately at 20°S over the Indian Ocean. The intensity and position of this high-pressure area affects the Indian Monsoon.
• The fourth condition develops during the summer. The Tibetan Plateau gets intensely heated resulting in strong vertical air currents and high pressure over the plateau about 9 km above sea level. The fifth condition develops during the summer due to the movement of the westerly jet streams to the north of the Himalayas and the presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian Peninsula.
   

1. Right to Equality- All persons are equal before the law. This means that all persons shall be equally protected by the laws of the country. It also states that no citizen can be discriminated against on the basis of their religion, caste or ***. Every person has access to all public places including playgrounds, hotels, shops etc. The State cannot discriminate against anyone in matters of employment. But there are exceptions to this that you will read about later in this book. The practice of untouchability has also been abolished.
2. Right to Freedom-  Everyone has the right to freedom of speech and expressions, the right to move freely and reside in any part of the country and the right to practise any profession, occupation or business.
3. Right against Exploitation- The Indian Constitution prohibits trafficking, child labour and children working under 14 years of age.
4. Right to Freedom of Religion-  Everyone has the right to enjoy religious freedom. It means that everyone has the right to practise, profess and propagate the religion of their choice.
5. Cultural and Educational Rights.- Our Constitution states that all minorities, religious or linguistic, can set up their own educational institutions in order to preserve and develop their own culture.
6.  Right to Constitutional Remedies-  A person has the right to go to the court for justice if he feels that his Fundamental Rights are being violated.

The distribution of the population according to different types of occupations is referred as occupational structure.

In India the occupational structure is dividede in to three they are: Primary(agriculture , and animal husbandry), Secondary ( Manufacturing) and Teritiary(services like banking, transport etc.)

The proportion of people working in different activities. Primary Secondary and Tertiary varies in developed and developing countries.

In developed countries higher proportion of people are engaged in secondary and tertiary sectors whereas in developing countries higher proprtion of people are engaged in primary activities.

Occupational shift in favour of secondary and tertiary sectors due to industrialization and urbanisation.

According to 2011 census, the population of India is 1.21 billion.

India’s population is 17.5% of the world population, while the area of India is just 2.4% of the total area of the world. India is projected to surpass China to become the most populous country of the world by 2025.

A general scarcity of basic necessities of life is called poverty. The basic necessities include food, shelter, clothing, healthcare, sanitation, etc.

Relative Poverty: This is a condition of inequality compared to the general population of the society.

Some of the issues which are related to poverty are; Landlessness, Unemployment, Size of families, Illiteracy, Poor health/malnutrition, Child labour and Helplessness.

Social scientists use various social indicators to analyse poverty in India. Mostly, they analyse poverty on the basis of levels of income, consumption and other indicators such as illiteracy level, lack of job opportunities, lack of general resistance because of malnutrition, lack of access to healthcare, safe drinking water and sanitation. 

Size of families  - When a poor labourer's income is low, the size of his family will always matter as the money  will not be enough to fulfill the basic needs of his family members if the family is big.
Illiteracy  - The labourer won't be able to send his children to school, As a result they will always remain illiterate.
Poor Health  - There is always a lack of clean water and sanitation facilities for poor people due to which they often get ill.
Malnutrition  - The poor labourers hardly find 'regular' employments (lack of regular job). When they dont have any job, they are left wothout any money due to which they will have nothign to eat and it leads to malnutrition.
Child labour  - When the family's income level is very low, they send their children for work which will raise their income a bit.
Helplessness  - When a member of the family gets ill there is no medical facility at all. So they are really helpless. Especially when the labourer himself gets ill they are more helpless.

Challenges to free and fair elections in India are as follows:

• Candidates and parties with a lot of money may not be sure of their victory but they do enjoy a big and unfair advantage over smaller parties and independents.
• In some parts of the country, candidates with criminal connection have been able to secure a ‘ticket’ from major parties.
• Some families tend to dominate the political parties; tickets are distributed to relatives from these families.
• Very often, elections offer little choice to ordinary citizens as both the major parties are similar to each other in their policies and practices.
• Smaller parties and independent candidates suffer a huge disadvantage as compared to the bigger parties.