Endocytosis is the process of actively transporting molecules into the cell by engulfing it with its membrane. Endocytosis and exocytosis are used by all cells to transport molecules that cannot pass through the membrane passively. Exocytosis provides the opposite function and pushes molecules out of the cell. Like all systems in the human body, the need for homeostasis enables an equal flow of molecules in and out of the cell.

endoplasmic reticulum

Ribosomes on the outer surface of the endoplasmic reticulum play an important role in protein synthesis within cells.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of reticulum of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm. It is of two types on the basis of ribosomes- 1. Rough ER is the presence of ribosomes which help in protein synthesis. 2. Smooth ER is the absence of ribosomes which help in lipid synthesis.

Cell Membrane

A thin semipermeable membrane layer of protein and fats surrounding the cell. Its primary role is to protect the cell from its surrounding. Also, it controls the entry and exit of nutrients and other microscopic entities into the cell.

Nuclear Membrane

It is a double-membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus. It is also referred to as the nuclear envelope.

Nucleus

It is an organelle that contains several other sub-organelles such as nucleolus, nucleosomes and chromatins. It also contains DNA and other genetic materials.

Centrosome

It is a small organelle found near to the nucleus which has a thick centre with radiating tubules. The centrosomes are where microtubules are produced.

Lysosome (Cell Vesicles)

They are round organelles surrounded by a membrane and comprising digestive enzymes which help in digestion, excretion and in the cell renewal process.

Cytoplasm

A jelly-like material which contains all the cell organelles, enclosed within the cell membrane. The substance found within the cell nucleus, contained by the nuclear membrane is called the nucleoplasm.

Golgi Apparatus

A flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle which is located near the nucleus and involved in manufacturing, storing, packing and transporting the particles throughout the cell.

Mitochondrion

They are spherical or rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. They are the powerhouse of a cell as they play an important role in releasing energy.

Ribosome

They are small organelles made up of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules, and they are the sites of protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

This cellular organelle is composed of a thin, winding network of membranous sacs originating from the nucleus.

Vacuole

A membrane-bound organelle present inside a cell involved in maintaining shape and storing water, food, wastes, etc.

Nucleopore

They are tiny holes present in the nuclear membrane which are involved in the movement of nucleic acids and proteins within the cell.

To calculate the number of moles, we use the equation:

Calculating the number of moles in 56 g nitrogen gas

Molar mass of nitrogen gas  = 28 g/mol

Putting the values in above equation, we get:  

1 mole of  gas contains 2 moles of nitrogen atoms.

2 moles  gas contains = of nitrogen atoms.

The mole concept is a convenient method of expressing the amount of a substance. Any measurement can be broken down into two parts – the numerical magnitude and the units that the magnitude is expressed in. For example, when the mass of a ball is measured to be 2 kilograms, the magnitude is ‘2’ and the unit is ‘kilogram’.

When dealing with particles at an atomic (or molecular) level, even one gram of a pure element is known to contain a huge number of atoms. This is where the mole concept is widely used. It primarily focuses on the unit known as a ‘mole’, which is a count of a very large number of particles.

Separation of hydrogen isotopic water by graphene oxide membrane in membrane distillation was carried out for the first time.

An effective functionalization method of graphene oxide membrane was developed.

Near-super hydrophobic graphene oxide membrane surface was achieved.

Near-super hydrophobic membrane surface and synergistic effect account for the enhanced separation factor.

Endoplasmic reticulum” might be rough and it posses ribosomes. The smooth type of them plays vital role in formation of new lipids in which the smooth membrances are embedded by the enzymes.

Only few  proteins will deposited in “endoplasmic reticulum” the remaining are moved to the “golgi apparatus”. These apparatus are situated near the “endoplasmic reticulum” and next to each other. Some proteins are secreted from “golgi apparatus” were forwarded to “lysosomes” which is also called as cell membrane.

While other proteins were pushed to cell exterior secretion.

 (pleura) between the terga and sterna of the thorax and abdomen with a pair of fine scissors.

Posteriorly the two inci­sions should meet at the hindmost end of the abdomen. Proceed forward up to the anterior end of the thorax.

Give a transverse incision along the anterior border of the first thoracic segment and carefully remove the terga. The thoracic and the abdominal cavity are exposed. Put clear water in the tray. Remove fat bodies and tracheae to expose internal organs.

,O2 is a molecule of element consisting of combination of 2 atoms of oxygen. 2O denotes two seperate oxygen atoms Which are not together. O2 means there are 2 atoms of oxygen in O2 formula. 2O means there are 2 molecules of oxygen.

Golgi

Lysosomes are small vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes and surrounded by a single membrane of up to 100nm thickness. They are formed by Golgi apparatus and contain some 60 different types of acid hydrolases for digestion of various materials. The cisternae of the Golgi body is bud off in the form small vesicles and fused with the acidic body to acid to form the primary lysosome.

Inertia and momentum are 2 concepts associated with the study of the motion of solid bodies. Momentum and inertia are both used to explain the current state of a body. Both are concepts related to the mass of the object.

Inertia: a characteristic of an object that resists changes to its state of motion.

• Explanation: Inertia is an intrinsic characteristic of the object related to its mass. Inertia tells you how much force it will take to cause a particular acceleration on the object.
• Inertia= if the body is at rest it will remain rest and it is moving it will continue moving in

Momentum: The resistance of an object to a change in its state of motion.

• Explanation: Momentum is a function of an object’s mass and velocity. Momentum is a measure of the kinetic energy of the object
• Momentum is the product of mass and velocity. momentum(P) = mass (M) × velocity(V)

Inertia and momentum are 2 concepts associated with the study of the motion of solid bodies. Momentum and inertia are both used to explain the current state of a body. Both are concepts related to the mass of the object.

Inertia: a characteristic of an object that resists changes to its state of motion.

• Explanation: Inertia is an intrinsic characteristic of the object related to its mass. Inertia tells you how much force it will take to cause a particular acceleration on the object.
• Inertia= if the body is at rest it will remain rest and it is moving it will continue moving in

Momentum: The resistance of an object to a change in its state of motion.

• Explanation: Momentum is a function of an object’s mass and velocity. Momentum is a measure of the kinetic energy of the object
• Momentum is the product of mass and velocity. momentum(P) = mass (M) × velocity(V)

Newton's third law is:

<font color="#FF0000"><font style="user-select: initial !important;">For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.</font></font>

The statement means that in every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting on the two interacting objects. The size of the forces on the first object equals the size of the force on the second object. The direction of the force on the first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the second object. Forces always come in pairs - equal and opposite action-reaction force pairs. 

In order to calculate the gravitational force between two objects with masses of m1 and m2 , the equation is: where G is the gravitational constant (6.67E-11 m3 s-2 kg-1), r is the distance between the two objects, and F is the magnitude of the force between the objects.

The symbol of copper is taken from the Latin word 'Cuprum'.
So the first two letters of this word that is Cu is taken as the symbolic name of copper.

In astronomy, Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are three scientific laws describing the motion of planets around the sun.

• Kepler first law – The law of orbits: According to Kepler’s first law,” All the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits having the sun at one of the foci”. The point at which the planet is close to the sun is known as perihelion and the point at which the planet is farther from the sun is known as aphelion.
• Kepler’s second law – The law of equal areas::  ” The radius vector drawn from the sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time”
  As the orbit is not circular, the planet’s kinetic energy is not constant in its path. It has more kinetic energy near perihelion and less kinetic energy near aphelion implies more speed at perihelion and less speed (v_min) at aphelion. If r is the distance of planet from sun, at perihelion (r_min) and at aphelion (r_max), then,
  r_min + r_max = 2a × (length of major axis of an ellipse) . . . . . . . (1)
• Kepler’s third law – The law of periods: 

  According to Kepler’s law of periods,” The square of the time period of revolution of a planet around the sun in an elliptical orbit is directly proportional to the cube of its semi-major axis”.

  T² ∝ a³

The sum of atomic mass of all the atoms present in the chemical formula of a substance is called its formula mass.

Molecular mass is the average relative mass of a single molecule of the given substance compared to 1/12 the mass of an atom of carbon12.

Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

• All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
• All atoms of a specific element are identical in mass, size, and other properties. However, atoms of different element exhibit different properties and vary in mass and size.
• Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed. Furthermore, atoms cannot be divided into smaller particles.
• Atoms of different elements can combine with each other in fixed whole-number ratios in order to form compounds.
• Atoms can be rearranged, combined, or separated in chemical reactions.

The law of conservation of mass states that “The mass in an isolated system can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another”.

Step farming or terrace farming is common in hills to check soil erosion through water current on the slopes. It provides a physical barrier to soil erosion by water. The mountain is made into steps that slows down the speed of rainwater preventing damage to crops.

• Addition of hot water.
• Addition of poisonous (mercury) compounds in water.
• Blockage of gills of fishes with any pollutant.