Separation of powers is also known as trias politica. This term was coined by Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu, an 18th century French social and political philosopher.

Separation of powers refers to the division of government responsibilities into distinct branches to limit any one branch from exercising the core functions of another. The intent is to prevent the concentration of power and provide for checks and balances. The normal division of branches is into a legislature, an executive and a judiciary.

All democratic countries are most likely to have a constitution. However, there are exceptions. A democratic country may not have a constitution. For example, Britain does not have a codified constitution. It has an unwritten constitution formed of Acts of Parliament, court judgments and conventions.

A parliamentary system is a system of democratic governance of a state where the executive branch derives its democratic legitimacy from the legislative branch. India has a parliamentary form of government which is a feature borrowed from the British Constitution. The President is the head of the state and Prime Minister is the head of the government. The Parliament is bicameral in nature. It consists of President and two houses - Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. The Council of Ministers are directly responsible to the Lok Sabha and stay in office as long as they enjoy its confidence.

In a federation system, there are two seats of power that are autonomous in their own spheres. A federal system is different from a unitary system in that sovereignty is constitutionally split between two territorial levels so that each level can act independently of each other in some areas.

There are two kinds of federations:

1. Holding Together Federation – in this type, powers are shared between various constituent parts to accommodate the diversity in the whole entity. Here, powers are generally tilted towards the central authority. Example: India, Spain, Belgium.
2. Coming Together Federation – in this type, independent states come together to form a larger unit. Here, states enjoy more autonomy as compared to the holding together kind of federation. Example: USA, Australia, Switzerland.

3(t – 3) = 5(21 + 1)
Solution:
We have
3(t – 3) = 5(2t + 1)
⇒ 3t – 9 = 10t + 5 (Solving the brackets)
⇒ 3t – 10t = 9 + 5 (Transposing 10t to LHS and 9 to RHS)
⇒ -7t = 14
⇒ t = -2(Transposing -7 to RHS)
Hence, t = -2 is the required solution.

European trading companies ventured across the oceans so as to look for new lands from where they could buy goods at a cheap price, and carry them back to Europe to sell at higher prices. The fine qualities of cotton and silk produced in India had a big market in Europe. Indian spices like pepper, cloves, cardamom and cinnamon too were in great demand. Hence European trading companies were attracted to India.

(a) Physical Properties of Metals

       •   Lustre: Metals in the pure state generally shine. The shine on the metallic surface is called the metallic lustre.

       •   Malleability: The property of metals by which they can be beaten into thin sheets is known as malleability.

      For example, silver metal is beaten to make silver foil used for decorating sweets.

       •   Ductility: It is one of the properties of metals by virtue of which they can be drawn into wires. For example, copper and iron can be drawn into wires.

       •   Conductivity: Metals are good conductor of heat and electricity. Heat and electricity can pass through them.

       •   Sonorous: Metals produce a ringing sound when struck hard. So, they are called sonorous.

       •   Solid: All metals are solid except Mercury, the only metal which is liquid at room temperate. We can cut sodium (Na) and potassium (K) metals with the help of a knife. Mercury, sodium and potassium are exceptional metals. Examples of metals: iron, copper, gold, aluminium, silver, calcium etc.

(b) Physical Properties of Non-Metals

       •   Solid non-metals are soft and dull. They break down into a powdery mass on tapping with a hammer. For example, coal and sulphur.

       •   Non-metals are not sonorous.

       •   They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.

       •   They do not possess metallic lusture.

       •   They possess no malleability and ductility.

      Examples of non-metals: phosphorus, sulphur, carbon, oxygen etc.

Following are the key features of Indian constitution.

1) Federalism: It refers to the existence of more than one level of government in the country. These are at the state and at the central levels. Citizens are governed by laws & policies made by each of these levels of government.

2) Parliamentary Form of Government: The Constitution of Indian guarantees universal adult suffrage for all citizens. This means every citizen of the country irrespective of his/her social background have a direct role in electing their representatives.

Representatives are thus accountable to the people in a parliamentary form of government.

3) Separation of Powers: There are three organs of the State: (a) the Legislature (b) the Executive and (c) the Judiciary.

a)The legislature refers to our elected representative; those who makes laws.

b) The executive is a smaller group of people who are responsible for implementing laws and running the government.

c) The judiciary refers to the system of courts in the country; who settles disputes and makes sure that laws are obeyed.

Each organ acts as a check on the other organs ofthe State and this ensures the balance of power between all three.

4) Fundamental Rights:

(i) The Fundamental Rights are referred to as the ‘conscience’ of Indian Constitution. Fundamental Rights protect citizens against the arbitrary and absolute exercise of power by the state.

(ii) The Constitution guarantees the rights of individuals against the State as well as against other individuals.

(iii) There are six Fundamental Rights in the Indian Constitution, which are: (i) Right to Equality; (ii) Right to Freedom; (iii) Right against Exploitation; (iv) Right to Freedom of Religion; (v) Cultural and Educational Rights; (vi) Right to Freedom of Religion; (iv) Right to Constitution Remedies.

(iv) In addition to Fundamental Rights, the Constitution has a section called Directive Principles of State Policy. It ensures greater social and economic reforms and to serve as a guide to independent Indian state to institute laws and policies that help reduce the poverty of the masses.

5) Secularism

A secular state is one in which the state does not officially promote any one religion as the state religion.

The Constitution plays a crucial role in laying out the ideals that we would like all citizens of the country to adhere to, including the representatives that we elect to rule us.

Constitution has been changed over the years to reflect new concerns of the polity that involves a change in the fundamental nature of the country.

1. In 1919, Rowlatt Act was hurriedly passed by the Imperial Legislative Council.
2. The Act gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities and to arrest people and keep them in prisons without any trial if they are suspected with the charge of terrorism. The Act deprived the Indians of their civil rights.
3. Mahatma Gandhi was extremely agitated by the enactment of Rowlatt Act. He was extremely critical about the act and argued that everyone could not be punished for the isolated political crime.
4. The Act was ill-famed as "Black Act" by the people and Indians revolted in protest against the Rowlatt Act

James Rannel prepared the first map in 1782.

Out of Colonization, Casteism, Sati System and None of these Colonization is the practice by which a powerful country controls another country in terms of social, religious, political and economic dominance.

An example of this is when England dominated India until India became independent in 1947. A new example of colonization in today's world is establishing economic dominance called "Neo- Imperialism".