The Indian National Forest Policy of 1988 emphasised the protective role of forests in maintaining ecological balance and environmental stability. The basic objectives that should govern the National Forest Policy were enlisted as follows:- (i) Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and, where necessary, restoration of the ecological balance that has been adversely disturbed by serious depletion of the forests of the country. (ii) Conserving the natural heritage of the country by preserving the remaining natural forests with the vast variety of flora and fauna, which represent the remarkable biological diversity and genetic resources of the country. (iii) Checking soil erosion and denudation in the catchment areas of rivers, lakes and reservoirs in the interest of soil and water conservation, for mitigating floods and droughts (iv) Checking the extension of sand dunes in the desert areas of Rajasthan and along the coastal tracts. (v) Increasing substantially the forest/tree cover in the country through massive afforestation and social forestry programmes, especially on all denuded, degraded and unproductive lands. (vi) Meeting the requirements for fuelwood, fodder, minor forest produce and small timber of the rural and tribal populations. (vii) Increasing the productivity of forests to meet essential national needs. (viii) Encouraging efficient utilisation of forest produce and maximising substitution of wood. (ix) Creating a massive people’s movement with the involvement of women, for achieving these objectives and to minimise pressure on existing forests.

Limestone is a carbonate sedimentary rock that is often composed of the skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, foraminifera, and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate. However, manganese is concentrated in various manganese rocks of sedimentary and hydrothermal-sedimentary genesis consisting predominantly (> 50%) of manganese minerals (Mn content—15–20% and greater); commonly this term is used in the literature as a synonym for manganese ore.

In India, we usually ‘showcase’ Adivasi communities in particular ways. Thus, during school functions or other official events or in books and movies, Adivasis are invariably portrayed in very stereotypical ways – in colourful costumes, headgear and through their dancing.

Besides this, we seem to know very little about the realities of their lives. This often wrongly leads to people believing that they are exotic, primitive and backward. Often Adivasis are blamed for their lack of advancement as they are believed to be resistant to change or new ideas.

Lord Mahavira belonged to a rich Kshatriya family. He was born and brought up in Kundagrama near Magadha (Bihar). Parents, Siddhartha and Trisala called him by the name Vardhaman. But Vardhaman came to be popularly known as Mahavira (i.e. the conqueror) because of his courageous, daring and fearless character. The childhood of Lord Mahavira was very colourful. He was a brave and wise child. Apart from that, he had an audacious and generous character.

In common law legal systems original jurisdiction of a court is the power to hear a case for the first time, as opposed to appellate jurisdiction, when a higher court has the power to review a lower court's decision. Original jurisdiction refers to the right of the Supreme court to hear a case for the first time. It has the exclusive right to hear all cases that deal with disputes between states, or between states and the union government. It also has original jurisdiction over cases brought to the court by ordinary people regarding issues to the importance of society at large.

The reformers tried to convince people that widow burning, caste distinctions, child marriage, etc had no sanction in ancient texts. Their knowledge of ancient texts gave them immense confidence and moral support which they utilized in promoting new laws. They did not get feared when people raised voice against the reforms they had brought.

 After the end of British India in 1947 and the emergence of the Indian Union, the Indian government demanded the Portuguese hand over their colonies to the Union. Refusal would lead to a conflict. On 24 July 1954 an organisation called "The United Front of Goans" took control of the enclave of Dadra.

French India was a French colony comprising geographically separate enclaves on the Indian subcontinent. The possessions were originally acquired by the French East India Company beginning in the second half of the 17th century, and were de facto incorporated into the Republic of India in 1950 and 1954. The French establishments included Pondichéry, Karikal and Yanaon on the Coromandel Coast, Mahé on the Malabar Coast and Chandernagor in Bengal. French India also included several logesin other towns, but after 1816, the loges had little commercial importance and the towns to which they were attached came under British administration.

The British declared their objectives for introducing western English education as:

a. To civilize India , which was characterised by many barbaric practises.
b. To spread Christianity, as they believed that Christianity was only true religion.
c. To consolidate British's power and position in the country.
d. British wanted to establish their cultural domination with spread of English language.
e. To serve their economic interests as English education would convince Indians about the superiority of British goods which were machine made and serve advantages of trade and commerce.
f. English education would create a class of people who could be part of civil British took advantage of India's political instability, lack of unity to establish their administrative purpose.
g. An important step was taken in 1835, with the passing of English education act which laid the basis of modern western education in India.
 

Pretoria is the administrative capital of South Africa. Cape Town is the legislative capital. And Bloemfontein is the judicial capital. 

Nationalism is defined as the identification with one's own nation and support for its interests, especially to the exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations.

Universal access of water means that water is a universal solvent to many solutes.

Subsidiary Alliance is a system developed by the East India Company. It solved the problem of ruling a nation which is under the rule of a king.An Indian ruler entering into a subsidiary alliance with the British had to accept British forces in his territory and also agreed to pay for their maintenance. The main features of the system were: (a) The native ruler who became a subsidiary ally of the English would be protected by the Company's government against foreign attack. (b) In lieu of this guarantee the native ruler had to maintain a force under British command and pay a subsidy for its maintenance to the Company.

Laws for the Marginalised
The government makes laws to protect its citizens. There are specific laws and policies for the marginalised in our country. There are policies or schemes that emerge through other means like setting up a committee or by undertaking a survey etc. The government then makes an effort to promote such policies in order to give opportunities to specific groups.

Promoting Social Justice
As part of their effort to implement the Constitution, both state and central governments create specific schemes for implementation in tribal areas or in areas that have a high Dalit population. For example, the government provides for free or subsidised hostels for students of Dalit and Adivasi communities so that they can avail of education facilities that may not be available in their localities.
Protecting the Rights of Dalits and Adivasis
In addition to policies our country also has specific laws that guard against the discrimination and exploitation of marginalised communities.

The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989
This Act was framed in 1989 in response to demands made by Dalits and others that the government must take seriously the ill treatment and humiliation Dalits and tribal groups face in an everyday sense. While such treatment had persisted for a long time, it had acquired a violent character in the late 1970s and 1980s. During this period, in parts of southern India, a number of assertive Dalit groups came into being and asserted their rights – they refused to perform their so called caste duties and insisted on being treated equally.

The Act distinguishes several levels of crimes. Firstly, it lists modes of humiliation that are both physically horrific and morally reprehensible and seeks to punish those who

force a member of a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe to drink or eat any inedible or obnoxious substance;
forcibly removes clothes from the person of a member of a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe or parades him or her naked or with painted face or body or commits any similar act which is derogatory to human dignity.

The major characteristics of the tribal societies are as follows:

• Tribal societies are completely united by the kinship bonds.
• Few traits like Strong, complex, formal organization were absent in tribal societies.
• Tribal societies have a communitarian basis of landholding.
• In tribal societies, there is no hierarchy among men and groups in tribal societies.

•  British choose to hold a grand Durbar in Delhi although it was not the capital because they wanted this place to be the centre of Administration.
•  Durbar was held in to celebrate the coronadition of king George 5 England.
•  After the revolt, the British had realised that the Mughal emperor was still important to the people and they saw him as their leader.
•  It was therefore important to celebrate british power and show in the city the Mughal Emperors had earlier ruled, and the place which had turned into a Rebel stronghold in 1857.

A fair trial is defined as a trial by a neutral and fair court which is conducted so as to accord each party the due process rights required by applicable law.

• The right to a fair trial applies in civil and criminal proceedings along with the various rights associated with a fair trial.
• In a fair trial, the accused's legal rights are safeguarded and respected.
• A fair trail proceeds on inquiry and renders judgement only after the trial.
• The necessary elements of a fair trial are an adequate hearing and an impartial tribunal, free from any interest, bias or prejudice.
• A fair trial ensures that Article 21 of the Indian Constitution is upheld.

The architecture of New Delhi was the crowning glory of the British Raj. The architects of this new city were Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker. The bulidings of New Delhi were made of red sandstone and included features like domes, chhatris(kiosks), and jalis(trellised windows).
They designed a beautifully symmetrical city with the President's Palace atop Raisina Hill at centre, the city spreading out on all sides. There were office buildings. At the other end of RajPath was India Gate, built in memory of the british soldiers who died during World War 1. To the left of Viceroy's House was the Council of Chamber. Connaught Place, at the centre of the city was part of Lutyens' design Humayun's tomb Purana Qila, Qutub Minar and the Hazrat Nizamuddin were all made to be a part of New Delhi. Broad tree-lined roads, gracious public buildings, fountains and parks characterised British Delhi.

The supreme court on hearing their case in 2005 directed every department/ministry of the union government and state governments to verify the facts within 6 months. if manual scavenging was found to exist, then the government department has to actively take up a time-bound programme for the libration and rehabilitation.

The Revolt of 1857 was one of the first wars of Indian independence against the British. This revolt can aptly be termed the first war of Indian independence against the British. Kings, peasants, tribals, landlords and we sepoys, all were dissatisfied with the British rule.
The start of the revolt was on the 29th of March, 1857, when Mangal Pandey, attacked his officers. The attack by Mangal Pandey is considered one of the first acts of what came to be known as the Great Rebellion or the Sepoy Mutiny.
The sepoys wanted an end to the British rule and make Bahadur Shah Zafar their leader. In Delhi, sepoys killed many British officers, confiscated their ammunition and set their buildings on fire. A week after the British were evicted from Delhi, a wave of mutinies began in different parts of the country. More and more regiments rebelled and joined other troops at nodal places like Kanpur, Delhi and Lucknow.
Near Kanpur, Nana Saheb and in Lucknow, Birjis Qadar and his mother Begum Hazrat Mahal, contributed a lot to the uprising. Birjis Qadar was the son of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. In Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai, Tantia Tope and the sepoys together fought against the British. The mutiny saw the emergence of many new leaders like Ahmadullah Shah from Faizabad, Bakht Khan from Bareilly and Kunwar Singh, from Bihar.