(i) A democracy is the idea of consent, i.e., the desire, approval, and participation of people.

(ii) It is the decision of the people that creates a democractic government and decides about its functioning.

(iii) The basic idea in democracy is that the individual or the citizen is the most important person and that in principle the government, as well as other public institutions, need to have the trust of these citizens.

(iv) The Parliament, which is made up of all representatives together, controls and guides the government.

Some of the features of modern age include:

1.It has been marked by significant developments in the field of science, literature, art, politics,warfare, technology etc. 

2.It is known as an age of globalization and discovery.

3.It also saw the rise of European powers and their dominance over colonial powers.

4.Industrialisation emerged in this era which gave rise to new concepts like urbanization, individualism, democracy etc.

Irrigation is the process of applying water to the crops artificially to fulfil their water requirements. Nutrients may also be provided to the crops through irrigation. The various sources of water for irrigation are wells, ponds, lakes, canals, tube-wells, and even dams. Irrigation offers moisture required for growth and development, germination, and other related functions.

The frequency, rate, amount and time of irrigation are different for different crops and also vary according to the types of soil and seasons. For example, summer crops require a higher amount of water as compared to winter crops.

Patshala:-- Pathshala is a teaching program that provides education to individuals of different ages, social and financial backgrounds. The program was further developed using the National Literacy Mission and Pratham models.

Madarsa:--The word "madrassa"--also spelled madrassah or madrasah--is Arabic for "school" and commonly used throughout the Arab and Islamic world to refer to any place of learning in the same sense that, in the United States, the word "school" refers to a primary school, high school or university. It can be a secular, vocational, religious or technical school. In general, however, madrassas offer religious-based instruction focusing on the Koran and Islamic texts at both the primary and secondary levels.

Natural Resources: Anything and everything that is available naturally on earth is a natural resource. For example - Hydro energy, solar energy, wind energy etc.

Man-made resources: When humans use natural things to make something new that provides utility and value to our lives, it is called human-made resources. For instance, when we use metals, wood, cement, sand, and solar energy to make buildings, machinery, vehicles, bridges, roads, etc. they become man-made resources.

Human resources: People are a nation's greatest resource. Nature's bounty only becomes significant when people find it useful. It is people with their demands and abilities turn them into resources.

Land is used for various purposes; like agriculture, forestry, mining, building houses, roads, industries, etc. Factors which affect the use of land are topography, soil, climate, minerals and availability of water. Human factors also determine the land use pattern. Ownership of land also determines the land use pattern.

Increasing population means there is an ever growing demand for land. But the availability of land is limited. Land degradation, landslides, soil erosion, desertification are the major threats to the environment.

a) The socio-religious reform movements of the 19th century were great pioneers of Indian nationalism. The impact of western education, which led to a rational, humanitarian and scientific approach to life, made the educated Indians realise the need to reform their religion and society. These movements touched almost every segment of Indian society. In the social sphere these movements worked for the abolition of caste system, child marriage, dowry system, purdah system, sati and infanticide. In the religious sphere, these reform movements combated religious superstitions, attacked idolatry, polytheism and hereditary priesthood. These movements fought for individual liberty and social equality.

Prominent reform movements were Brahmo Samaj (founded by Raja Rammohan Roy), Arya Samaj (founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati), Ramakrishna Mission (founded by Swami Vivekanand) and Satya Shodhak Samaj (founded by Jyotiba Phule.

  b) The Press: Newspapers such as the Amrit Bazar Patrika, The Bengali, The Tribune, The Times of India, The Hindu were prominent. Newspapers in vernacular language were also printed. It was through the press that the message of patriotism and modern liberal ideals of liberty, freedom, equality spread among the people. The press daily criticised the unjust policies of the British. It made possible to exchange views among different sections of the Indian society and to organise political movements. It made Indians aware of the political and social development of the outside world and shape their own policies and programmes. 

c) Repressive Colonial Policies: The British had conquered India to promote their own interests and therefore , followed such repressive policies so as to make India submissive to the needs of the British. 

Lord Lytton introduced the Vernacular Press Act (1878) and the Indian Arms Act. The Vernacular Press Act did not allow vernacular papers to publish any material that might excite a feeling of dissatisfaction against the British government.  The Indian Arms Act of 1879 made it a criminal offence for Indians to carry arms without license. 

The maximum age limit for the Indian Civil Service examination was reduced from 21 to 19 years, thus making it difficult for the Indians to compete for it. 

These repressive policies of the British provided a stimulus to political agitation and quickened the pace of Indian nationalism.

• Freedom to interpret basically means the liberty to understand and take things however we want to think.
• This means we are allowed to imply or think a certain viewpoint as the meaning behind what has been said.
• It allows people to form their own opinions and develop their own understanding according to how they want.
• It also means there is an open window over how people will form their opinions about a particular issue.
• And it allows people the right to make their own choices and form their own conclusions.

Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, provided, it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable can be termed as ‘Resource’.

Carnatic wars were a series of military attacks in India during the 18th century. The main reason behind these wars was that various European countries wanted to establish their colonies in India. Three carnatic wars took place.

Fundamental rights and Fundamental duties are two terms that appear to be one and the same when it comes to their meaning and concept. Strictly speaking they are not so. They are two different terms that are to be understood differently.

Fundamental rights are rights and freedoms guaranteed by constitutions of some countries of the world to their citizens. These rights have a legal sanction and are enforceable in a court of law. On the other hand fundamental duty is the basic duty or responsibility bestowed on you as a citizen of the country. This is the most important difference between fundamental right and fundamental duty.

A fundamental right exists by virtue of the fact that you are a human being whereas a fundamental duty too exists as a responsibility on you as a human being. Hence the primary difference between fundamental right and fundamental duty is that fundamental right is based on privilege granted to you whereas fundamental duty is based on accountability.

Any citizen for that matter is expected to carry out fundamental duties fully well so that the society as a whole will be benefited. On the other hand any citizen for that matter can make full use of his fundamental rights pertaining to right to life, freedom of speech and writing, etc. It is interesting to note that freedom of speech is a fundamental right granted to a citizen by some of the democratic countries across the globe. Hence it is up to the individual to make use of the fundamental right granted to him.

Fundamental duties of every citizen include basic education, nurturing of children, social responsibility, official responsibility, payment of taxes, adherence to traffic rules and regulations and the like. Evasion of fundamental duties leads a citizen to problems. Abuse of fundamental right also leads a citizen to unwanted problems. These are the differences between fundamental right and fundamental duty.

• Deals with any harm or injury to rights of individuals. For example; disputes relating to sale of land purchase of goods, rent matters, divorce cases.
• A petition has to be filed before the relevant court by the affected party only. In a rent matter, either the landlord or tenant can file a case.
• The court gives the specific relief asked for. For instance, in a case between a landlord and a tenant, the court can order the flat to be vacated and pending rent to be paid.

National park

• National parks are also established for the protection of flora and fauna.
• They are protected areas intended to provide a natural habitat with all natural resources to the animals where they can freely roam and use the habitat.
• These areas are extended and diverse enough to protect the entire ecosystem including the flora, fauna, historic objects and the natural landscapes.
• The National Parks of India are as follows:

Two persistent threats to the availability of water are deforestation and water pollution.
Deforestation means cutting the trees and most of the deforestation is happening due to human beings. Without trees, we will lose the environmental benefits they provide. Removing trees can influence global temperatures. It can adversely impact local water supplies.

Water pollution:

This will cause due to several reasons. Those reasons are  

1. Sewage and water of water

2. Dumping

3. Global warming

4. Industrial waste.

Military Causes;

• Low salary and poor prospects of promotion.
• Disproportion between Indian and British troops.
• Social distance between officers and Indian soldiers.
• Loss of British prestige in Afghan War.
• General Service Enlistment Act by which Indians enlisted in British Army could be sent overseas.