The scale is the relation between distance on the map and the corresponding distance on the ground, e.g. if the distance on the map and grounds of same two points is 1 cm and 1km receptively, the scale of the map will be 1cm to 1km, R.F= (1:1000000). Scale is very important in any map. If you know the scale, you will be able to calculate the distance between any two places on a map.

The atmosphere has five distinct layers that are determined by the changes in temperature that happen with increasing altitude. Layers of Earth’s atmosphere are divided into five different layers as:

• Exosphere
• Thermosphere
• Mesosphere,
• Stratosphere
• Troposphere.

Harappan civilization is one of the most ancient civilizations of the world. It was believed to be a hub of art and culture and architecture. The discoveries made at these architectural sights give us great insight into the lives and lifestyles of our ancestors. 

Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Athravaveda. Out of them, the Rigveda was the first Veda to be composed. Rigveda contains more than 1000 hymns and each hymn is called 'sukta'. The Rigveda or Rig Veda is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns. It is one of the four sacred canonical texts (śruti) of Hinduism known as the Vedas. The Rig Veda is the earliest of the four Vedas and one of the most important texts of the Hindu tradition. It is a large collection of hymns in praise of the gods, which are chanted in various rituals. They were composed in an archaic language named Vedic that gradually evolved into classical Sanskrit.
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Buddha tried two basic ways to spread his message to the people:

• He used Prakrit since it was a language of the common people so he could spread his message to large no. of people.
• He gave the message to think proactively instead of following him blindly.

The four major domains of the Earth are – Lithosphere, Atmosphere, Hydrosphere and Biosphere.

The Mauryan Empire had an efficient and centralized administrative system. Mauryan administration was highly centralized. The Emperor was the supreme power and source of all authority. He was assisted by a Council of Ministers. The Empire's people mainly had a Buddhist religion. The people of the Mauryan Empire contributed greatly to the fields of art, and architecture. The Mauryan Empire was very important to India's way of life. The Mauryan Empire all began in 321 B.C., when a man named Chandragupta Maurya (340 -298 B.C.) was ruler. The main items of trade were indigo, various medicinal substances, cotton, and silk. The foreign trade was carried on by the land as well as by the sea. Special arrangements were made for facilitation of the trade like security of trade-routes, provisions of warehouses, go-downs, and other means of transport.

The mainland stretches from Latitude 8^o4' North to 37^o6' North and from Longitude 68^o7' East to 97^o25' East. The southernmost point in the Indian Territory, (in Great Nicobar Islands) is the Indira Point (6^o45' North), while Kanya-kumari, is the southernmost point of Indian mainland. Tropic of Cancer crosses the country at 23^o30' North dividing the country into almost two equal parts.

India extends from 8 degrees 4 minute north to 37 degrees 6 minute north latitude and 68 degrees 7 minute east to 97 degrees 25 minute east longitude. Thus, its latitudinal and longitudinal extent is about thirty degree.

The edicts describe in detail Ashoka's view about dhamma, an earnest attempt to solve some of the problems that a complex society faced. According to the edicts, the extent of Buddhist proselytism during this period reached as far as the Mediterranean, and many Buddhist monuments were created. Importance of Asoka's edicts are: They are a main source of information about the reign of Ashoka. These edicts and inscriptions contained instructions on religious matters especially Buddhism. ... Ashoka's edicts also tell us about Ashoka's policy of Dhamma.

 Stereotyping is setting an image about people or things based on certain characteristics or their membership to a particular group. Stereotyping is harmful for the individual and society for the following reasons:

1. We set an image of people belonging to one community and then pass on this impression to others. Thus, this establishes an unbroken chain of unestablished form of lies.

2. This image gets fixed and we start to recognise that group based on the set image. This stops us from appreciating the individual qualities.

Prejudice means to judge others in a negative way or to see them as inferior. People who are prejudiced may criticise the religious beliefs, habits, customs, dressing styles and languages of other people.

Inspite of several efforts made by the government inequalities still exist in our society. Even today low caste people are being discriminated against and treated unequally. The reason behind it is that people refuse to think of them as equal even though the law requires it. This attitude of the people is so deeply rooted that it can not change all of a sudden. It will take a lot of time. Even though people are aware that discrimination is against the law, they continue to treat others unequally on the basis of caste and religion. People are also discriminated against on the basis of economic status, disability and gender.
Unless people believe that every person deserves to be treated equally and with dignity, the present attitude cannot be rooted out. Changing people's attitude is a very slow process and hence establishment of equality in society is a continuous struggle.

Inequality and discrimination are the two different concepts. But they are related closely to each other. Inequality may be the difference between caste, creed, culture, language, religion, economic status, educational background etc. Everyone differs from the other in society. Discrimination takes place when one acts against an individual or a community on the basis of difference. A Whim or a prejudice works behind it. If one tries to exploit the other individual who is down in status.
In any way, it is called discrimination. That discriminated individual or community is devoid of the common opportunity or facility provided by the society. It is not at all healthy for a good society.

Some examples of the prevalent stereotypes are as follows:

• Girls are supposed to be soft spoken and submissive in nature. They are supposed to have keen interest in music and painting. They cry too often. They need to learn cooking, doing household chores and tidying up the house.
• Boys are supposed to be aggressive and naughty. They are supposed to have keen interest in adventure sports and outdoor sports. Boys should not cry because crying is a sign of weakness. When a boy becomes adult, he is supposed to earn money to bring the bacon at home.

The untouchables are the persons which are ill-treated and the are called the low castes and Dalits. The many great leaders like Mohandas Gandhi and Dr. B R Ambedkar are fought aginst the untouchability. Ghandiji called them Harijans.

(i) The Indian Desert: The Indian Desert, popularly known as the That desert, lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills. It is an undulating sandy plain covered with sand dunes. This region receives very low rainfall below 150 mm per year. It has arid climate with low vegetation cover. Streams appear during the rainy season. Soon after the rainy season they disappear into the sand. Luni is the only large river in this region. Crescent shaped dunes popularly known as Barchans are an important feature of the Indian Desert.

ii) The Island Groups of India: India has two island groups - the Lakshadweep Islands and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Lakshadweep Islands group lies close to the Malabar coast of Kerala. This group of islands is composed of small coral islands. Earlier they were known as Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindive. In 1973, these were named as Lakshadweep. It covers small area of 32 sq km. Kavaratti Island is the administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are located in the Bay of Bengal. They are bigger in size and are more numerous and scattered. The entire group of islands is divided into two broad categories - the Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in the south. These island groups are of great strategic importance for the country. They lie close to equator and experience equatorial climate and has thick forest cover.

• These are narrow coastal strips, running along the Arabian Sea on the west and Bay of Bengal on the east.
• These are known as western coast and eastern coast of the coastal plains.
• The western coast is sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea.
• It is a narrow plain and consists of three sections. The northern part of the coast is called the ‘Konkan’, the central is called ‘Kannad Plain’ and the southern part is called the ‘Malabar Coast’.
• The plains along the Bay of Bengal are wide and level.
• In the northern part, it is called Northern Circas, while the southern part is known as Coromandal Coasts.
• Large rivers such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri form extensive deltas on the eastern coasts.
• Lake Chilika is also located on the eastern coast. It is the largest salt water lake of India.

The three parallel ranges of the Himalayas are:

• Himadri (Great or Inner Himalayas)
• It is the most continuous range. The northernmost range is called the Himadri. It consists of loftiest peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres. It contains all the prominent peaks. It remains snow covered throughout the year, resulting into the formation of glaciers and some perennial rivers.
• Himachal (Lesser Himalayas)
• It lies to the south of Himadri and forms the most rugged mountain system. The ranges are mainly composed of highly compressed and altered rocks. Average height is between 3,700 to 4,500 metres. Some famous ranges are the Pir Panjal range, Dhaula Dhar and Mahabharat ranges. It has some famous valleys like Kullu, Kangra and Kashmir. They are known for their hill stations. The average width is 50 Km.
• Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas)
• This is the outermost range of the Himalayas. Its height varies between 900 and 1,100 metres. These ranges are composed of unconsolidated rock material, so these ranges are prone to earthquakes and landslides. These longitudinal valleys lying between lesser Himalayas and Shiwaliks are called ‘Duns’ like Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patlin Dun, etc.

India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories, for a total of 36 entities. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and smaller administrative divisions.

Give name of countries. ques in incomplete

The non-farm activities of Palampur are dairy, small scale manufacturing and transport. Nearly 25% of the people engaged in non-farm activities. 

Non-farm activities are as follows:

Dairy is the main non-farming activity of the people of Palampur. People have domesticated cows and buffaloes. The milk is sold to the people of Raiganj.
Some people are also engaged in small manufacturing units like spinning, weaving, leather making etc. Labourers are generally not hired for small manufacturing units.
Many shopkeepers have set up their own shops selling stationery items, toothpaste, candles etc. in the village. They buy various goods from the wholesalers in the towns.
Many people of the village of Palampur are also engaged in driving tractors, jeeps, bullock carts, rickshaws and trucks. They mostly transport goods from one place to another.

A n s w e r : The key idea of the democratic government is its commitment to equality and justice.

लोकतांत्रिक सरकार का मुख्य विचार समानता और न्याय के लिए अपनी प्रतिबद्धता है।

Answer: In modern days; rulers are chosen through popular vote. But in the janapadas, a ruler was not chosen rather a person was supposed to show his supremacy to become the ruler. To do so, the raja had to perform the ashwadeha yajna so that other rajas in the mahanjanapada would accept his supremacy.