Diversity: Difference among people on the basis of religion, language, eating habits, etc. is called diversity.

A person may follow a particular religion, while another person may follow another religion. Different people speak different languages. Even if they speak the same language, different people among them may be speaking the same language in different accents.

Parallels of Latitudes: All parallel circles from equator up to the poles are called parallels of latitude. Latitudes are measured in degrees.

Meridians of longitude: The imaginary lines which run from one pole to another are called longitudes. These are also called meridians of longitude. Unlike latitudes; all meridians of longitude are of equal length. Hence, it was difficult to decide the zero degree longitude. So, all countries decided that the line passing through Greenwich should be made the zero degree longitude.

The rich heritage of diversity in India adds variety to our life and enriches our lives in many ways:

• Diversity teaches us to be open-minded and tolerant  as we learn many things from each other and share our experiences.
• We celebrate different festivals together and learn different languages, cultures etc. This kind of diversity helps us evolve as better human beings because we respect people with different religious beliefs, viewpoints, tastes, customs, and cultures.
• However, we stand together as Indians despite all these cultural differences. We share the same national symbols, virtues and feelings. A sense of friendship and unity develops and it brings harmony and prosperity.

The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra.

The secondary sector of the Indian economy is the most significant area and helps in the economic development of the country because it covers those activities in which natural products are changed into other forms in manufacturing units. This sector is associated with industries and often called industrial sector, making it the most important sector. And as a result of which, it provides with good opportunities for employment. 

The factors that determine the outcome of politics of social divisions are-
1- People's perceptions :- this is the most important factor that decides the outcome of politics of social division. if the people see their identities in singular and exclusive terms then it will lead to social division and violence.
2- Raising the demands by political leaders:- the outcome of polics also depends on how political leaders raise the demands of any community. it is easier to accommodate demands that are within the Constitutional framework.
3- Reaction of government :- the outcome of politics of social division also depend on reaction of government. that how the government reacts to the demand of different groups.

1. Physical Factors

Physical factors affecting agriculture are: (i) climate (ii) soil and (iii) topography.

(i) Climate.

Climate plays a dominating role in agriculture. Plants require sufficient heat and moisture for their growth. Normally, regions having maximum temperature of less than 10°C are not suitable for plant growth. In the tropical regions, where temperature is high throughout the year, agriculture is successfully done.

Plant life is not possible in dry areas except that with the help of irrigation. The moisture requirements vary from plant to plant and region to region. In the lower latitudes, where temperature is high, plants need more moisture for their growth (75cm to 100cm).

On the other hand, in the higher latitudes where summers are cool, winds are not dry, rainfall of 50-62 cm is sufficient for plant growth.

(ii) Soils.

The richness of soil is another important physical factor affecting agriculture. Soils differ in respect of physical and chemical composition. Soils may be fine or coarse, porous or non-porous. In general fine soils like loam or silt are very fertile. The chemical composition of the soil determines its productivity.

Generally, the soils which are found at the place of their origin, known as residual soils, are poorer than those which have been transported from the place of their origin. The transported soils are rich and have a variety of minerals in them. The transported soils are: (a) loess, transported by wind (b) alluvial, transported by river water (c) glacial, transported by glaciers.

The fertility of the soils decreases with constant cultivation. Soils become infertile if the fertility is not renewed. This can be achieved by leaving the land fallow, by rotation of crop and by use of manures and fertilizers.

Soil erosion and water logging have become major problems with soils as such these should be checked by adopting contour farming, terrace farming, constructing dams and dykes.

(iii) Topography.

The nature of topography plays a significant role in the development of agriculture. It determines extent of soil erosion, methods of cultivation and mode of transportation. In the mountanous and hilly regions, soil erosion is common; terrain restricts use of machinery and development of means of transportation.

However, in the flat regions, there is no such problem. Plain regions have fertile soils. The flat topography facilitates use of machines. Means of transportation can be easily developed in the plain areas.

Moreover, dense population in the plain regions provides cheap agricultural labour and a huge market for the products. The alluvial plains, the river valleys and the deltas are very suitable for agriculture.

2. Economic Factors

The most important economic factors affecting agriculture are: (a) market (b) transport facilities (c) labour (d) capital (e) Government policies.

(a) Market.

Market is an important economic factor in agriculture. The distance from the market determines the cost of transportation. Agricultural crops like vegetables etc. are grown near the market.

Sugarcane is grown close to the urban centres, where sugar mills have developed. Similarly, dairy farming is developed around the cities, which serve as markets for the dairy products.

(b) Transport Facilities.

The development of efficient means of transportation widen the market for agricultural products.

(c) Capital.

Agriculture, in the modern times is becoming mechanized. This involves huge capital investments. Purchase of machinery, fertilizers, pesticides and high yielding variety seeds require plenty of money. In India, the farmers are poor.

They cannot afford use of modern farm technology, thus it affects agricultural production. The factor of availability of capital plays a significant role in the development of agriculture.

(d) Labour.

The supply of labour determines the character and type of agriculture. Intensive cultivation requires a large supply of cheap labour. Availability of cheap and efficient labour is essential for the cultivation of crops like rice, tea, cotton and rubber. Thus, the factor of availability of labour also plays a vital role in agriculture.

(e) Government Policies.

The policies of the Government also influence agricultural land use. The Government may restrict the cultivation of a crop or may force the farmers to grow a particular crop, e.g., area under sugarcane and oil seeds cultivation has increased in India on account of greater emphasis put by the Government on these crops.

Government subsidy or liberal loan in respect of a particular crop helps in larger acreage under that crop. After 1947, the Government of India gave tax relief and concessions to the farmers for growing jute, with the result that in different parts of the country, area under jute cultivation had increased to a large extent.

3. Other Factors

(i) The level of scientific and technological development has a great bearing on agriculture. Farmers, using primitive methods obtain poor yields. But on the other hand, where farmers are using modern farm technology in the shape of fertilizers, pesticides, machinery and high yielding variety seeds etc. the farm yields are high.

An Indian farmer is poorer in comparison to an American farmer because the later uses modern farm technology. The per hectare yield of rice in

India is only 2000 kg as compared to about 5600 kg in Japan. This difference in yield is due to scientific and technological differences.

The system of land tenure also plays a significant role in the patterns and productivity of agriculture crops.

The spreading of nationalism took place due to following factors :

(i) United Struggle Different religious groups and communities unitedly struggled against the British rule.

(ii) Cultural Processes Unity spread through various cultural processes like history, folklore. songs and symbols that helped in spread of nationalism.

(iii) Common Identity The painting of ‘Bharat Mata’ was commonly identified as motherland and affected
the people equally.

(iv) Revival of India Folklore Reviving the folklore through folk songs, legends helped in promoting traditional culture and restore a sense of pride in the past history and culture.

(v) Role of the Leaders Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru aroused the feelings of nationalism through their motivational speeches and political activities.

Nationalism developed through culture in Europe: 

(i) Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation, art and poetry, stories and music helped to express and shape nationalist feelings. 

(ii) Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally criticized the glorification of reason and science and focussed instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. 

(iii) German Philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people- das volk. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of a nation was popularised. 

(iv) The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was used to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterates.

The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state.

Money cannot buy all the goods and services that you may need to live well. So, income by itself is not a completely adequate indicator of material goods and services that citizens are able to use. For example, normally, your money cannot buy you a pollution-free environment or ensure that you get unadulterated medicines, unless you can afford to shift to a community that already has all these things. Money may also not be able to protect you from infectious diseases, unless the whole of your community takes preventive steps.

April 30, 2020

Yes. Agriculture in India is an activity of the unorganised sector.
(i) Most of the workers working in agriculture are ill paid.
(ii) Agriculture sector faces the problem of under employment.
(iii) Most of the workers working in agriculture are employed only during harvesting and sowing season.
(iv) Most of the farmers are dependent on moneylenders and relatives for their loan requirements.

Major steps that were taken towards decentralisation in 1992 were:

• It was made obligatory to hold elections for choosing members of local governmental institutions
• Seats were reserved for people belonging to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and other backward classes in local bodies.
• One-third of the seats are reserved for women.
• State Election Commission was constituted in the states for holding elections in government bodies.
• It was made mandatory for the State Governments to share powers and revenues with local bodies.

1. When some social difference overlaps other social difference it is called overlapping social difference.

2. Overlapping differences in the mixture of one or more differences caused by one main difference. Situations of this kind produce social divisions, when one kind of social difference becomes more important than the other and people start feeling that they belong to different communities.racial or linguistic differences may lead to economic differences. It is not easy to accommodate and even created deep social divisions and tensions.

3. Example:- a) racial difference between dark complexion and fairer complexion also referred as the [African-Americans]in the US becomes a social division because the darker complexion tend to stay unemployed due to their color and tend to be poor & homeless, and often face injustice & discrimination. Their complexion leads them to poverty. b) In India Dalit(lower caste) have constantly been ignored by the upper castes and they tend to be poor & landless and often face injustice & discrimination.

4. Overlapping differences create possibilities of deep social divisions and tensions.

The basis of origin of social differences are

1. Most social differences are based on the accident of birth. For example, people may be tall, strong, weak, girl or boy.
2. Some social differences emerge because people choose to follow certain practices or principles. For example, a person may be an atheist or may be a feminist. Some people may convert to another religion. 
3. All social differences do not result in social divisions. Sometimes, even people belonging to different religions may have common interests

The First World War led to the development of the Indian industries. It was because of the following reasons:

1. During the First World War, the British industries focused on meeting the war needs of the army. This led to the decline of imports from Manchester.
2. This created a void in the Indian markets which was filled by the Indian industries.
3. During the war, Indian industries also had to supply goods to the army. They mostly supplied jute bags, cloth for making army uniforms, leather boots and saddles.
4. Many new industries were set up in India to cater to the war needs. Many workers were employed. After the war, Manchester was never able to regain its lost position in the market

• Farmers were the main source of taxes. One-sixth of the farm produce was collected as tax. This was known as the bhaga or share.
• A craftsperson had to pay taxes in the form of free labor. He needed to work for one day every month for the king and that too without wages.
• A herder used to pay tax in the form of animals and animal produce.
• Taxes were also levied on goods that were bought and sold through trade.
• Hunters and gatherers used to pay in the form of forest produce.

Magadha was an ancient Indian kingdom in southern Bihar, and was counted as one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, 'Great Countries' of ancient India. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism, and two of India's greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, originated in Magadha.