Biotechnology is the branch of applied science that utilizes living organisms and their derivatives in order to produce products and processes. These products and processes can apply to several aspects of the economy ranging from healthcare and medicine to biofuels and environmental safety. The primary applications of this technology are in medicine (production of vaccines and antibiotics) and agriculture (genetic modification of crops, such as to increase yields). Biotechnology also has many industrial applications, such as fermentation, the treatment of oil spills, and the production of biofuels.

An easier and more accurate method to determine the microbial count is the plate method , where a food sample is placed on a culture medium plate. After an appropriate incubation period, you can count the number of colonies that have formed on the culture medium plate. The principle behind measuring microbial growth by OD

Particles in solution scatter light and the more particles (microorganisms) can be found in a solution, the more light is scattered by them. Therefore, a replicating population of bacteria or yeast increases light scattering and measured absorbance values.

The principle behind microarrays is that complementary sequences will bind to each other. The unknown DNA molecules are cut into fragments by restriction endonucleases; fluorescent markers are attached to these DNA fragments. These are then allowed to react with probes of the DNA chip. The DNA microarray is a tool used to determine whether the DNA from a particular individual contains a mutation in genes like BRCA1 and BRCA2. The chip consists of a small glass plate encased in plastic. Some companies manufacture microarrays using methods similar to those used to make computer microchips.

Peptide Mass Fingerprinting (PMF) is a technique used to identify proteins by matching their constituent fragment masses (peptide masses) to the theoretical peptide masses generated from a protein or DNA database. Peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF) (also known as protein fingerprinting) is an analytical technique for protein identification in which the unknown protein of interest is first cleaved into smaller peptides, whose absolute masses can be accurately measured with a mass spectrometer such as MALDI-TOF or ESI-TOF.

Sterilization can be achieved by a combination of heat, chemicals, irradiation, high pressure and filtration like steam under pressure, dry heat, ultraviolet radiation, gas vapor sterilants, chlorine dioxide gas etc. Sterilization refers to any process that removes, kills, or deactivates all forms of life (in particular referring to microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, spores, unicellular eukaryotic organisms such as Plasmodium, etc.) and other biological agents like prions present in a specific surface, object or fluid ...

Industrial enzymes are enzymes that are commercially used in a variety of industries such as pharmaceuticals, chemical production, biofuels, food & beverage, and consumer products. Due to advancements in recent years, biocatalysis through isolated enzymes is considered more economical than use of whole cells. Allosteric regulation, genetic and covalent modification, and enzyme inhibition are all types of enzymatic regulation. Enzymes can be inhibited in three ways: competitive inhibition, non-competitive inhibition, or uncompetitive inhibition. Enzyme activity can be affected by a variety of factors, such as temperature, pH, and concentration. Enzymes work best within specific temperature and pH ranges, and sub-optimal conditions can cause an enzyme to lose its ability to bind to a substrate. Enzyme activity can be affected by a variety of factors, such as temperature, pH, and concentration. Enzymes work best within specific temperature and pH ranges, and sub-optimal conditions can cause an enzyme to lose its ability to bind to a substrate.

Haploids are spontaneously converted into fertile diploids through meiotic non- reduction, allowing their genotype to be perpetuated. Maternal and paternal haploids can be generated through reciprocal crosses. Haploid plants can be produced through in vitro culture of male gametophytic cells at the microspore or immature pollen developmental stage. These cells respond in vitro by undergoing embryogenesis or haploid callus proliferation.

• Downstream processing is the separation and purification of the product.
• The product has to be formulated with suitable preservatives and the formulation has to undergo thorough clinical trials.

Each person normally has one pair of *** chromosomes in each cell. Females have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y chromosome. Early in embryonic development in females, one of the two X chromosomes is randomly and permanently inactivated in cells other than egg cells. The X chromosome is one of two *** chromosomes. Humans and most mammals have two *** chromosomes, the X and Y. Females have two X chromosomes in their cells, while males have X and Y chromosomes in their cells. Egg cells all contain an X chromosome, while sperm cells contain an X or a Y chromosome.

DNA sequencing is the process used to determine the order of nucleotides in a specific DNA molecule. This information is useful for researchers in understanding the type of genetic information that is carried in the DNA, which may affect its function in the body. A computer program can be used to check an unknown DNA sequence for ORFs. The program transcribes each DNA strand into its complementary RNA sequence and then translates the RNA sequence into an amino acid sequence. Each DNA strand can be read in three different reading frames.

Steps in DNA sequencing:

1. Sample preparation (DNA extraction)
2. PCR amplification of target sequence.
3. Amplicons purification.
4. Sequencing pre-prep.
5. DNA Sequencing.
6. Data analysis.

Sanger Sequencing Steps

The Sanger sequencing method consists of 6 steps:
(1) The double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) is denatured into two single-stranded DNA (ssDNA).
(2) A primer that corresponds to one end of the sequence is attached.
(3) Four polymerase solutions with four types of dNTPs but only one type of ddNTP are added.
(4) The DNA synthesis reaction initiates and the chain extends until a termination nucleotide is randomly incorporated.
(5) The resulting DNA fragments are denatured into ssDNA.
(6) The denatured fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis and the sequence is determined.

Gametoclonal variation has been defined as the variation among plants regenerated from gametic cells in culture (Evans et al., 1984; Morrison and Evans, 1987). ... Attempts can be made to direct gametoclonal variation by imposition of selection agents during the process of haploid derivation. 

Somaclonal variation is defined as genetic variation observed among progeny of plants regenerated from somatic cells cultured in vitro. Although theoretically all plants regenerated from somatic cells should be clones, a number of observations have indicated that this is not the case.

Somaclonal variations are reported in all types of plant tissue cultures. In recent years, the term gametoclonal variations is used for the variations observed in the regenerated plants from gametic cells (e.g., anther cultures).